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(De)optimising foods for satiety


allgrownup

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TLDR;

- fat is the least filling nutrient but delivers the most calories. Always add extra fat to every meal of your subject
- how food is presented -- as healthy, lite, rich, etc -- influences how the subject's body reacts to it. Calorie rich food presented as healthy or lite trigger a fullness/craving reaction as if the subject ate such a lite meal
- how food feels is very important. Thicker = richer. You can use this to your advantage by diluting calorie rich food so the subject's body treats it as calorie poor food (or vice versa)
- the body learns over time and will start to ignore these signals. Mix up the way calories are delivered to your subject; make something rich seem lite, then the next time make a lite version of it but make it feel very rich and talk about how this is richer food


This is how I keep myself busy. "Optimising foods for satiety" (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0924224414002386)

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Overall this body of literature indicates that  increasing the protein content of a food is an effective way to deliver enhanced satiety to the consumer, but  manipulating the macronutrient content of a food while  keeping energy constant means it is difficult to be certain  whether these effects are due to the superior satiating effect  of protein, the reduction of less satiating nutrients carbohy-  drate and fat, or a combination of both of these. Moreover,it is not known whether these effects are maintained after  repeat experience; for these reasons EFSA are yet to  approve claims based on a general protein effect

 

Higher protein tends to make people feel fuller: avoid too much protein

 

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With regard to satiety, the  low-fat rhetoric of recent years seems justified: consuming more energy from carbohydrate than fat has been linked to  reduced risk of being overweight or obese ....

high carbohydrate foods are  more satiating than those that are high in fat ...

In free-feeding experiments when people are offered a range of  high fat foods they tend to consume more energy than when they are offered high carbohydrate foods (Blundell,  Green, & Burley, 1994), a phenomenon termed high fat hyperphagia or passive over consumption ...

this fat-related increased  intake of energy does not lead to increased sensations of satiety

 

 

Carbs are more filling than fat.

Fat gives more calories while people don't feel more full from it.

 

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One particularly important property of fat is that  per gram it delivers more than double the energy of carbo-  hydrate and protein. The prevailing view is that fat’s high  energy density per unit weight largely accounts for its  low satiety value (Blundell & Macdiarmid, 1997; Rolls &  Bell, 1999). A high fat food will often be smaller in weight  (and volume) than a high carbohydrate food of similar en-ergy and this difference may affect the timing of the processing of the nutrients in the gut (Karhunen, Juvonen,  Huotari, Purhonen, & Herzig, 2008) and also consumer be-liefs about the likely consequence of consuming that food.  That is, people tend to believe a small serving of food will  not be enough to satisfy their hunger regardless of the energy it contains

 

People think a small serving of food will not be enough to satisfy their hunger, even though the calorie density might be very high

 

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Another food ingredient that can have beneficial effects on satiety responses is dietary fibre...

More generally, a  fibre-rich diet is thought to promote satiety and weight  management because it will contain foods that are low in energy density, such as fruit and vegetables, which when  eaten in the same volume as high energy dense foods are  equally as satiating but less energetic (Rolls et al., 2005),indicating that the way in which high fibre foods are digested promotes satiety.

 

 

Fiber's satiety might also be due to the type of food eaten to get it; high volume, low calorie density

 

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This important work suggests that  foods might have optimal effects on appetite control when they are high in protein and fibre and contain more carb hydrate than fat.

 

In reverse, food that doesn't fill would be:

  • low in protein 
  • low in fiber 
  • more fat than carbohydrates

 

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Food texture, therefore, may serve as a reliable predictive cue for future sensations of satiety (Davidson &  Swithers, 2005), shaping expectations about the affect a  food will have on appetite. Textured foods require mastica-  tion which will slow rates of consumption and enhance oro-sensory exposure time[/quote]

[hen participants consumed a liquid preload (e.g. fruit juice) their  adjusted intake at the next meal compensated for only71% of the preload energy compared to 95% when the pre-  loads were in semi-solid form (e.g. yoghurt) and 109% in  solid form (e.g. bread), providing evidence that liquid calories have weaker effects on satiety that may lead to excess  energy intake.

 

 

The less chewing needed, the less the experience of satiety

The more liquid a food, the less the effect of satiety

 

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For example,  increasing the viscosity of a semi-solid chocolate pudding  reduced eating rate, changed gastric responses andincreased subjective reports of satiety (Zhu, Hsu, &  Hollis, 2013), post-consumption hunger was reduced by  thickening a “shake” (Mattes & Rothacker, 2001) and  enhancing the thickness and creaminess of a yoghurt beverage changed perceptions of how satiating it was likely to be, and reduced subsequent lunch intake.

 

Thicker liquids cause more satiety, even if not containing more calories

 

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Before food is processed in the mouth other features of a product can change perceptions about its nutrient content  and how it might impact on satiety sensations: in Cassady  et al.’s study (2012) merely the belief that a food would gel in the stomach was enough to alter satiety responses.  One realistic way to influence beliefs is through food labels, which provide detailed nutritional information and  can sometimes contain explicit messages about the conse-  quences of consuming a product (e.g. “fuller for longer”)  or its satiety-relevant nutritional components (e.g. “high protein”). Experimental studies of food labelling provide  some evidence that this type of information can not only  change how much a person will eat of that product (e.g.  Roberto, Larsen, Agnew, Baik, & Brownell, 2010) but also their subsequent appetite. For example, lunch intake  was higher after consuming a high calorie yoghurt labelled  low fat compared to when no information was presented on  the yoghurt (Shide & Rolls, 1995); after consuming a  beverage presented as a high calorie milkshake participants  reported feeling fuller and eating less at a test meal than  when this information was not present (Wooley, 1972);  and branding a fruit “smoothie” beverage with a high  satiety message enha

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The belief about a food’s effect, by labeling or other messaging, influences satiety. Low calorie consumption said to be very filling has high satiety, while high calorie food presented as low calorie or low fat people will consume more...

two intriguing  recent studies provide evidence that labelling may alter physiological satiety responses: consuming a milkshake  labelled as “620-calorie indulgent” resulted in a steeper  decline in the hunger stimulating hormone ghrelin than  did consuming the same milkshake labelled as “120-calorie sensible” (Crum, Corbin, Brownell, & Salovey,  2011); and activation of brain areas implicated in appetite  regulation was dependent on whether a low calorie drink was labelled as a “treat” or “healthy”

 

 

To fatten, present food as low calorie healthy food

Labeling something with lower calories, or labeling of ‘healthy’ vs ‘treat’ makes people feel less full and hungry faster

 

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A number of innovative studies have demonstrated that the perceived size of a food product is also important for  satiety. For example, the visual perception of a meal was  shown to be important for appetite control in a study where participants dined in complete darkness. The lack of visual  cues led them to overeat a “super-sized” meal, underestimate how much they had consumed and despite consuming  greater amounts of food they did not report enhanced sensations of satiety (Scheibehenne, Todd, & Wansink, 2010).  In another study, incorporating air into a milkshake preload so that its apparent volume was doubled but its energy density unchanged resulted in a 12% reduction in intake at a  subsequent meal and lower reports of hunger


Size, volume, also has effect on feelings of hunger and satiety. Even when food contains more calories but it is small or we cannot see, people eat more calories en feel less full.

Simply injecting air in a milkshake will make people feel full faster and for longer.

To fatten, make small portions with high calorie density

 

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This collection of studies indicates that information  about the satiating potential of a product is gathered from  its labelling, the look and feel of it and perhaps most impor-tantly from the experience of it in the mouth....

The thicker beverages were  perceived to be thicker and creamier and expected to  deliver stronger sensations of satiety than the thinner versions, which were also perceived to be less creamy even  when presented with the creamy-taste additions. This was irrespective of the beverage’s actual energy content and  supports the idea that, at the point of consumption, the sen-  sory properties of food influences beliefs about its post-ingestive effects. These data also suggest that thicker  texture is a more influential sensory characteristic than  creamy-taste alone, which is in line with other recent research identifying that thick and chewy sensory cue are  associated with greater expectations of satiation

 

 

The thicker a liquid, the more satiety. Thicker is more important than creamier.

To turn that around, when we want to fatten our subject we can make things thinner so the brain thinks "this can't be that calorie rich"

Mashed potatoes using a lot of cream and butter but with a thinner consistency would be experienced by the brain as not that rich of a food.

 

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Another finding from this study was that participants reported being more hungry before the test  lunch when they had consumed the thick and creamy  version of the low energy beverage, compared to when  they had consumed the same beverage without these sensory enhancements. This “rebound appetite” was unpredicted but might also lend support to an integrative model  of satiety: expectations generated by the experience of consuming the thick and creamy but low protein beverage  could have triggered anticipatory physiological responses  that when unmet by actual nutrients resulted in sensations of hunger.

 

When sensory doesn’t match calorie content, people may have rebound appetite

Something similar is suspected by some for things like diet soda; the brain gets a "lots of sugar! calories!" signal, prepares the body for that calorie load, but the calories never come; so now the body demands that energy input.

 

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Results support an integrated model of  satiety: it was found that providing explicit information  that the product would reduce hunger improved the satiating effect of the high energy version of the test product compared to the low energy version. It was also found  that improvements in satiety responses were most pronounced when expectations were manipulated via sensory  modifications rather than by providing information alone. ...

From this collection of studies it might be suggested that  real-world food marketing can influence responses to  nutrient ingestion, but this is expected to be less effective than optimising the nutrient content and sensory characterstics of a food product for satiety.

 

 

The sensory part has more influence than labeling/information

 

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This study adds weight to  previous evidence indicating that sensory signals generate expectations which assimilate with metabolic nutrient signals to influence satiety, but highlights that this might influence satiety only when foods are first encountered and its satiating effects are unknown. Learning about a food’s satiating capacity occurs with repeat exposure (Yeomans,  2012) and so for a familiar product beliefs generated by  recent experiences might become more relevant than those  generated by the generic satiety-related sensory qualities  tested in this study.

 

Repeated exposure reduces the sensory perception of satiety; the actual calorie effect starts to count more

That means that as always when promoting weight gain, you need inconsistency. Mix up sizes, the consistency of the food, the calorie load, etc to prevent the subject from getting used to predicting satiety

 

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the appetite suppressing effect  of a nutrient rich food can be improved by making small modifications to its sensory profile or by ensuring that consumers are convinced of its satiating effects through product marketing. Critically, this work also indicates that in  the absence of these cues a food product designed for  satiety might fail to deliver the intended effect. The  rebound appetite findings suggest that nutrient light foods  that taste as though they will be satiating might actually  promote appetite and encourage food intake, thus designing  a weight management food product to confer satiety while  being low in energy might be unachievable. Finally, it is  important to consider that the influence of early satiety sig-  nals might diminish as consumers repeatedly experience afood and learn about its physiological significance, though  the point at which satiety responses reflect only the nutrient  content of food and not the consumer’s cognitive and sen-sory appraisal of it remains to be established....

This new body  of work also opens up questions about diet foods, by indicating that a food product designed to appear satiating but which is low in actual nutrients can promote appetite.

 

 

Where we can make calorie rich food be experienced as lighter food, so that the subject consumes more of it as if it is a regular meal, we can also make food seem more calorie rich while it isn't. This will promote hunger as the body demands the calories it expected. This can be combined with the inconsistent delivery of calories as it relates to how the food is prsented ("here's a lite slice of bread", "this is ice cream made with real cream"), and how it feels (more liquid mashed potatoes vs more solid/creamy)

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